Modern people tend to believe in the notion of end justify the means. As long as they can get what they want, they do not care so much about the process. This approach can be traced back to Machiavelli’s The Prince《君主论》which published in 1532, the period of early European Renaissance. An early version of the manuscript was written in 1513 initially as an offering to the Medici family. Machiavellianism characterizes in pragmatism, a cold-blooded human relations and a totally dismiss of the ethical value in human conducts.
In the last five hundred years, Renaissance Man have been acclaimed as specifically the rebirth of reason, the liberation of man’s mind, the triumph of rationality over mysticism—a faltering, incomplete, but impassioned triumph that led to the birth of science, of individualism, of freedom. Finally even the birth of United States of America is a direct result of Renaissance development . The side effect of the Renaissance as we can all observe today are far reaching, among them are the separation of mind and body, the separation of spirit and material, the separation of nature and human, the exploitation and pollution of nature to fulfill Man’s desire, the beaten of human spirit, the rise of evil, the debasement of social bonding and ethics , and the extreme misuse of resources, etc.
The Renaissance represented a rebirth of the Aristotelian spirit. The great corollary of these results, the product of men who were armed with the knowledge of the scientists and who were free at last to act, was the Industrial Revolution, which turned poverty into abundance and transformed the face of the West. The Aristotelianism released by Aquinas and the Renaissance was sweeping away the dogmas and the shackles of the past. Reason, freedom, and production were replacing faith, force, and poverty. The age-old foundations of statism were being challenged and undercut.
In terms of its morality, the Renaissance was split in two: it was part-Aristotelian, part-Christian. As Aristotelians, the men of the Renaissance displayed the virtues of intelligence and pride, and pursued the value of happiness on earth. As Christians, they upheld the virtues of humility, renunciation and self-sacrifice, and the value of rewards in Heaven. Thus the existentially brilliant era of the Renaissance was marred, spiritually, by a profound moral conflict.
In the sphere of political philosophy, to this day, the market places are mainly occupied by the view of “separation of church and state”, the historic progress doctrine and moral relativism. Confucianism is the square opposite of Machiavellian-ism. It is main content is based on “courtesy”, “people-oriented”, “golden mean middle-way”, “harmony”, and last but not all “loyalty and filial piety”. Confucianism is ethics standard at the absolute sense.
The modern value systems had caused a total disorientation in the mind of modern people as the striking number of mental disorder drastically jumps up as #1 modern disease. At the same time, the prevailing mentality also poses a dilemma to the revival of the Confucian political ethics. It is thus of practical necessity to deconstruct the modern consciousness and restore the dialogue and reconciliation between the classical and the modern thoughts to recover the benefits of Confucian political ethics. This assessment was strongly emphasized in Leo Strauss’ book History of Political Philosophy, which can be looked upon as a survey of the best of western thought. Leo Strauss was one of the preeminent political philosophers of the twentieth century. He was known for his close careful deep reading of classic Western Civilization philosophic texts. Combining Leo Strauss’ philosophical view with that of Confucianism can give the modern people a more holistic understanding of what is truth.
武汉大学学报刊登的徐红林的文章《儒家政治伦理思想架构及其现代价值》对当代人重新恢复古典人文教育做了提纲挈领的总结。 很值得反思。提要如下:
现代语境下儒家政治伦理思想面临的生存困境:
首先是现代主义主张政教分离。现代主义用政治现实主义取代古典德性政治的理想主义传统,用功利政治和工具理性取代德性政治和道德—实践理性。如此,则使得儒家政治伦理思想与现代政治意识之间存在着内在的紧张性。现代政治意识的始作俑者是马基雅维利,马基雅维利在人类历史上第一次提出君主为了实现政治目的可以采取不道德的政治手段,从而打破了道德对政治的束缚,开启了政治现实主义和现代政治意识的滥觞。
其次是现代人的历史主义观点。历史主义实际上表现为一种历史进步主义的观点,即今人较古人认识问题更为全面和进步,所以对待古典文化和思想我们应采取批判性的态度。历史主义表现了现代人的狂妄、无知和自负,历史主义反对为任何学术建立绝对的形而上学的标准,强调社会背景和历史条件对政治思想的决定性,从而导致了一种历史相对主义的立场。相对主义用社会的普遍承认取代了古典德性政治的“至善”理念,从而使现代政治道德只剩下古典时代遗留下来的一些碎片,最终导致了萨特等存在主义者所归结的道德虚无主义。代表历史主义的经典作家有黑格尔和马克思等。黑格尔认为人类历史的发展是从不完美走向完美的过程,而完美的国家形态就是德意志国家。马克思的历史唯物主义则认为,人类历史是生产力对生产关系、经济基础对上层建筑的决定和互动的过程,最终对历史的发展起决定性作用的是生产力。由于生产力是不断发展的,所以人类历史经历了原始社会、奴隶社会、资本主义社会和社会主义社会的不断进步的螺旋式上升过程,而历史的发展必将实现共产主义。
最后是现代人的道德相对主义观点。古典政治伦理具有一元性和绝对性的特点,倡导一种形而上学的道德观。古代的东方社会形成了一种以宇宙为中心的世界观,而西方社会则形成了以神学为中心的世界观。但是现代人的道德相对主义则解构了这两种世界观,并最终导致道德的多元主义和虚无主义。比如存在主义者海德格尔认为存在先于本质,即此在在被抛掷到这个世界之前,并不存在任何先验的道德,此在的生存并不受某种绝对道德的束缚,而是应该遵从此在的良心和内在自由来自我判断此在在道德上是否有罪(海德格尔,2006)。道德相对主义解构了古典政治伦理的绝对性和形而上学标准,使得古典政治伦理在现代社会日益式微。
道德相对主义给当代中国人带来的是道德滑坡、人的物化、拜金主义和社会道德信仰的崩塌。近年来,频频发生的地沟油事件、毒奶粉事件等各种各样的造假行为,以及裸官事件和官场腐败都到了令人触目惊心的地步,国人已经丧失了最基本的道德底线。如果要防止国人的道德滑坡和崩塌现象进一加剧,重构一种统一的追求至善的价值观和道德信仰势在必行。
西方人的人类中心主义和扩张主义观点自近代以来带来了基督教文明对全世界的征服和掠夺,也间接促进了非西方世界的现代化和发展。但是,地球的资源有限,经济的增长必然存在极限,由于人类对大自然的过度掠夺,大自然已经开始对人类进行报复,生态危机正向我们逼近。在这样的现实语境下,现代人不得不重新思考东方和合文化的内涵与价值。人类作为灵长类动物,只是地球的诸物种之一,如果要实现人类社会的可持续发展,现代人就必须放弃人类的独尊地位和狂妄无知,虚心地与大自然和谐共处。
现代民主政治的弊端正在于宗教和道德彻底地退出了政治生活领域,从而带来了现代人的双重丧失:意义丧失—人生价值的丧失和自由的丧失——道德和宗教信仰的缺乏和异化而失去了内在的精神自由 。 儒家政治伦理是一种古典政治伦理,是一元化和绝对化的伦理思想,即作为整个封建国家和社会所有的阶级和阶层都必须遵循的唯一的形而上学标准和道德规制。
中国政治应该在未来的发展走出“左”与“右”之争而更加强调个体的自由和价值尊严。而儒家“仁”的政治伦理思想恰恰体现了对个体生命的尊重,强调要顺从存在的生命个体所固有之性、情、道而成全之,非以外在于人之道或概念而硬加于民,这完全体现了个体人格之尊严和对个体精神之自由之追求。
我们必须避免对儒学做历史主义的理解,即按照现代人的社会背景和历史条件,按照今人的世界观和方法论,对儒学和儒家政治伦理进行批判和解构,并以历史进步主义的心态、以俯视的姿态对待儒学。五四以来,国人在对待儒家文化和伦理方面,存在着两种经不住严格批判的主张:一是对儒家的权威的反抗;二是对未来的过分乐观。如果我们希望到传统中去寻求教诲,就必须对儒学作非历史主义的理解,即按照儒学的经典作家本人一样如其所是地去理解儒学和儒家伦理思想,对古人的教诲按照绝对主义而非相对主义的方式做出阐释,还儒家政治伦理以本来面目。儒家政治伦理思想作为中国传统政治伦理思想的主流,发展了几千年,包含丰富的政治伦理思想内容,代表了中国文化发展的一个“常道”。在现代语境下,重新梳理儒家政治伦理的内容架构,实现古今和解与对话,有助于重构现代政治的道德基础。
文章提出了一个重要的问题:五四运动和新文化运动是西方文化与中国传统文化发生激烈碰撞与冲突碰撞的典型表现,传统政治伦理与西方政治伦理之间的矛盾与张力日益凸显。最终导致了中华文明和伦理思想发展中的文化断层。在历史上,当儒学在魏晋南北朝时期面临佛教和道教思想的侵蚀时,儒学不但没有走向式微,而是最终融合了道教和佛教的思想从而形成了宋明理学。而近代儒学面临西方基督教文化侵蚀时,为什么却迟迟难以做到对西方文化进行融合而再次复兴呢?究其原因,不得不考虑到以上所提到的现代道德相对主义对中国儒家政治伦理的发展构成的钳制和解构。因为导致儒家政治伦理式微的三个公设: 政教分离、历史进步主义和道德相对主义未必能经受详密的论证和考验。当然儒家政治伦理也存在不足。儒家政治伦理思想没有西方文化中的自由、平等、人权、权利等这些形式概念,没有形成自由的概念和自由的制度架构。